Battle of Marj Dabiq| Early Egyptian-Ottoman Relations
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| Sultan Selim I |
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The Ottomans began to emerge as a rising power in the region in the first half of the 14th century.
When the Banu Osman state was established, the Ottomans made the city of Prusa in Asia Minor their capital.
Over time, this young state expanded, eventually capturing all of Asia Minor.
The Ottomans’ victories culminated in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 AD under Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Mehmed II).
Initially, Egyptian-Ottoman relations were marked by a spirit of alliance and mutual affection.
The Mamluks and the Turks joined forces against the Portuguese threat to Mamluk sovereignty in the Red Sea.
They also collaborated against the Mongol incursions led by Timur and the remnants of the Crusaders.
However, tensions between the two powers eventually escalated, particularly as the Ottoman state’s borders neared the Mamluk territories.
The Waning Alliance Between the Ottomans and the Mamluks
The relationship between the Ottoman and Mamluk states initially reflected affection and alliance, exemplified by their joint naval participation in the war against the Portuguese.
However, tensions began to rise during the confrontation between Sultan Selim I of the Ottoman Empire and Shah Ismail Safavi of Persia, as both sought alliances with the Mamluks to counter each other.
Sultan Qansuh Al-Ghouri received envoys from both sides, Shah Ismail warned him of Selim I’s ambitions, cautioning that without their cooperation, Selim could eliminate his adversaries one by one, especially since he had secured a truce with the Europeans.
In contrast, Sultan Selim urged Qansuh to ally against the "enemies of religion," referring to the Shiite Safavids, while warning of their ambitions toward Aleppo and the Levant.
When Qansuh did not respond, Selim resorted to veiled threats, As the Ottoman army marched toward Persia, Selim sought assistance from Ala Al-Dawla, a prince of the Turkmen dynasty.
Ala Al-Dawla declined, citing his age and allegiance to the Mamluks, However, once the Ottoman army advanced, Ala Al-Dawla’s forces attacked its rear.
Historians debate whether this action was orchestrated by Qansuh, though he later sent a letter of thanks to Ala Al-Dawla, encouraging further skirmishes.
Selim responded by informing Qansuh of Ala Al-Dawla’s actions, Qansuh dismissed the matter, labeling Ala Al-Dawla disobedient.
From that point, animosity between Selim and the Mamluk Sultanate grew, with both leaders harboring ill intent toward each other.
The Path to Conflict: Qansuh Al-Ghouri and Sultan Selim
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| Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh Al-Ghuri |
After his decisive victory at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 AD, Sultan Selim I sought to consolidate his power.
Sultan Qansuh Al-Ghouri attempted to ease tensions by offering to mediate peace between Selim and Shah Ismail.
However, Selim treated Qansuh’s envoys harshly, aggravating the situation.
Gathering his ministers and commanders, Selim reminded them of Ala Al-Dawla's actions and the Mamluks’ refusal to assist in the Safavid war.
He decided to declare war on the Mamluks, crafting a letter to Qansuh that ostensibly offered peace but was designed to provoke a confrontation.
Qansuh, instead of mending ties, retaliated by insulting Selim’s messengers, This marked a critical misstep in diplomacy.
Anticipating Ottoman aggression, Qansuh mobilized a large army from Egypt and positioned his troops in Syria, preparing for Selim’s move.
Meanwhile, Selim led his forces from Istanbul toward the Levant.
Learning of Selim's advance, Qansuh ordered Jan Bardi Al-Ghazali to assemble forces with the Emirs of the Chouf and Lebanon at the plain of Marj Dabiq.
However, betrayal loomed within the Mamluk ranks, Khayr Bey, the governor of Aleppo, secretly allied with Selim, lured by promises of ruling Egypt.
Despite warnings from Prince Sibay of Damascus and others, Qansuh refrained from acting against Khayr Bey, fearing it might unsettle his commanders before the impending battle.
The Decisive Battle of Marj Dabiq
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| Khayr Bey, the traitorous governor of Aleppo |
The Ottomans assembled a formidable army of approximately 125,000 fighters, equipped with 300 cannons and numerous carbines (primitive rifles).
The forces included Al-Qabuquli troops, composed of elite infantry and cavalry; Al-Azab infantry divisions; the Akinci attackers; and the Timar supporting forces.
Sultan Selim I left his son Suleiman as his deputy in Istanbul before leading this vast force to battle.
In contrast, the Mamluk army, estimated at 5,000 fighters from Egypt and an additional 10,000 to 20,000 troops from the Levant Emirates, was comparatively smaller.
Sultan Qansuh Al-Ghouri left his nephew Tuman Bay as deputy in Egypt, When the two armies faced off, skirmishes began, with the Mamluk cavalry launching a bold and effective initial assault.
Their archers targeted Ottoman standard-bearers and musketeers, causing chaos within Ottoman ranks.
Sultan Selim even considered renewing the truce due to the significant losses his forces endured.
However, Ottoman artillery strikes gradually neutralized the Mamluk attacks, The tide turned decisively when Khayr Bey, the governor of Aleppo and commander of the Mamluk left flank, betrayed Qansuh by siding with the Ottomans.
He spread a rumor that Sultan Qansuh had been killed, which shattered the Mamluk forces' morale, Disorganized and demoralized, the Mamluks faltered under intensified Ottoman bombardment.
As the Mamluk forces disintegrated, Sultan Qansuh Al-Ghouri was struck down during his retreat.
His body was never recovered, with some accounts suggesting an officer buried it secretly to prevent the Ottomans from claiming it as a trophy.
The battle ended in a decisive Ottoman victory, with heavy Mamluk casualties and the effective collapse of their military resistance.
The Fall of the Mamluk State
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| Tuman Bay II |
The Ottoman victory at Marj Dabiq paved the way for their entry into Damascus, which Sultan Selim I seized with little resistance.
Consolidating control over the Levant, Selim began preparing for the invasion of Egypt to eliminate the Mamluk state entirely.
In Egypt, the Mamluks appointed Tuman Bay as Sultan and attempted to organize a defense against the advancing Ottomans.
However, internal disunity, inaction, and betrayal weakened their efforts, These factors culminated in their defeat at the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517, sealing the fate of the Mamluk state and establishing Ottoman dominance over Egypt.